編者按：自《印度是什么》一文發(fā)表后，讀者提問積極。大象讀者對印度的了解和興趣遠(yuǎn)超我們預(yù)期。更有不少高水平的“刁鉆”提問，讓身為印度人的Banerjee小姐也頗為頭疼。

中國人一般都很好奇，貴為世界三大宗教之一的佛教在其發(fā)源地印度為何乏人問津？佛教和印度教到底是什么關(guān)系？

本次為大家呈現(xiàn)的是Banerjee小姐對兩個(gè)非常具有代表性的問題的回答：

1、讀者Fred Young提出：

2、讀者Water提出：

感謝這兩位讀者提出的問題。為力圖原汁原味地呈現(xiàn)Banerjee小姐對這兩個(gè)問題的看法，我們將她回答的英文原稿與翻譯稿一同為讀者呈上。

歡迎讀者朋友們繼續(xù)點(diǎn)擊文末的閱讀原文，向Banerjee小姐提問。

The diversions of Buddhism from Hinduism

佛教之于印度教的偏移

作者：Banerjee

1、Hinduism

一、印度教

In a country as culturally diverse as India, glamorised with numerous celebrations, it is not uncommon for many to explore the origins of such festivities. While it is a fact that not all festivals have originated from Hinduism, most of them such as Diwali (festival of lights), Holi (festival of colours), and Ganesh Chaturthi (a time to remove obstacles and invoke a new beginning) have had their metaphorical and philosophical basis from the religion. In essence, celebrating the festivals is an opportunity for Indians to reflect upon the wisdom and teachings of Hinduism that can be traced back to ancient times.

在一個(gè)文化有如印度般多元，被各種節(jié)慶所點(diǎn)綴的國度，很多人都熱衷于探索這些節(jié)慶的來源。雖然并非所有節(jié)慶都來源于印度教，但多數(shù)重要節(jié)日如Diwali（排燈節(jié)/光明節(jié)）、Holi（色彩節(jié)）和Ganesh Chaturthi（象頭神節(jié)，辭舊迎新之時(shí)）的哲學(xué)和隱喻的根源都和宗教息息相關(guān)。事實(shí)上，慶祝節(jié)日從古至今都是印度人反省印度教智慧與教導(dǎo)的好機(jī)會(huì)。

2009年9月3日，印度的印度教教徒舉行盛大儀式慶祝象頭神節(jié)

Hinduism is a collection of philosophical and metaphysical beliefs that have developed over a long period of time.Commonly understood as more of a way of life than an official religion, Hinduism offers a philosophy that is rooted in liberation of the soul back to its purest form, from the illusions, drudgeries and desires of the world. The genesis of Hinduism has perplexed many scholars over the years as there are no formal accounts of its actual beginning. However the religion is believed to be over five thousand years old and probably the part of the oldest civilization known to the world.

印度教是長期積累的一整套哲學(xué)和形而上學(xué)觀念。一般情況下印度教并不被當(dāng)作一種正式的宗教，而是更多的體現(xiàn)在生活方式上。印度教植根于一種向往靈魂獲得自由，返回最純凈狀態(tài)，遠(yuǎn)離俗世的虛妄、勞苦、欲求的哲學(xué)。很久以來，印度教的形成使不少學(xué)者備感困擾——并無正式的文獻(xiàn)記載印度教究竟是如何起源的。但是，這門宗教據(jù)信已有超過五千年的歷史，很可能是世上所知最古老文明的一部分。

Between 750 and 550 B.C , Hindu pundits (priests) tried to reveal the hidden meaning of the Vedas. A stark observation about the Vedas is that they were recited by the priests to the disciples. Spiritually enlightened priests who had been through years and years of meditation had developed an innate understanding on the nature of reality, morality , eternal life and the functions of the soul, which were later on written down as Upanishads, a series of which made each Veda.

公元前750年到550年，印度賢者（僧侶）試圖揭開《吠陀經(jīng)》隱含的含義。吠陀經(jīng)的一項(xiàng)重要特征是由僧侶吟唱，傳承給學(xué)徒。通過長年冥想，在精神上覺醒的僧侶可以具有內(nèi)在的，對現(xiàn)實(shí)、道德、永生和靈魂的作用本質(zhì)上的理解，這些后來被寫成奧義書，一系列的奧義書即成一部吠陀。

The formats of the Upanishads were written as dialogues or discussions between a student and a teacher which carefully aim at exploring how a person can achieve liberation from desires and suffering. The ultimate objective of a Hindu is the state of perfect understanding of all things, also known as “Moksha”. It is important for most Hindus to ultimately understand “atman” (the individual soul of a living being) and the interconnectedness it has with that of “brahman” (the universal soul) as a prerequisite in achieving “Moksha”. Karma has been customised as a misunderstood concept that explains the feeble connections of ones actions and the repercussions of them. However, the true Hindu belief of Karma lies in ones’ perfect understanding of the atman and brahman in order to avoid rebirths. The idea of rebirth in Hinduism refers to the soul’s karma , delivering both the good and bad deeds leading that lead from one reincarnation to another. It is popularly believed that Karma influences specific life circumstances, such as the caste one is born into, one’s state of health, wealth or poverty, and so on.

奧義書的文體為記錄學(xué)生與老師對話的問答體。對話就一個(gè)人該如何解脫欲求與苦厄，獲得自由進(jìn)行了認(rèn)真地探索。一個(gè)印度教徒的最終目標(biāo)便是達(dá)到完美的、理解萬事的狀態(tài)，這種狀態(tài)被稱為Moksha。對大多數(shù)印度教徒而言，最終理解atman（個(gè)體靈魂）及其與brahman（萬物靈魂）之間的聯(lián)系至關(guān)重要，這也是修得Moksha的先決條件。宗業(yè)（因果報(bào)應(yīng)）經(jīng)常被誤解為一種解釋個(gè)體行為及其后果的弱關(guān)系的概念。真正的印度教徒對宗業(yè)的信仰則在于個(gè)體對atman和brahman的完美理解以避免輪回。印度教中，輪回的概念指靈魂宗業(yè)，通過做好事與壞事導(dǎo)致從一種轉(zhuǎn)世到另一種轉(zhuǎn)世。一種很通行的信念是宗業(yè)對特定的生活條件有影響，譬如一個(gè)人誕生于什么種姓，他的健康狀況，富有抑或貧窮等等。

Hindu ideas about karma and reincarnation strengthened the caste system. If a person was born as an upper-caste male—a Brahmin, warrior, or merchant—his good fortune was said to come from good karma earned in a former life. Nevertheless, throughout history, many in India have had a partial and perhaps inaccurate understanding regarding the exact principle of Karma and Moksha and in the same period of speculation, the other religious doctrines attempted to simplify the complex metaphors of Hinduism.

印度教的宗業(yè)和轉(zhuǎn)世概念強(qiáng)化了種姓系統(tǒng)。如果一個(gè)人生為高種姓男性——婆羅門、勇士、商人等，他的幸運(yùn)便會(huì)歸結(jié)于前世造下的好宗業(yè)。雖說如此，在歷史長河中，很多印度人對宗業(yè)和Moksha的理解卻一度失之片面甚至不準(zhǔn)確。在那些印度教并不盛行的時(shí)代，其他的宗教教條應(yīng)運(yùn)而生，試圖簡化印度教復(fù)雜的隱喻。

印度種姓制度簡易示意圖

2、Buddhism

二、佛教

Buddhism emerged from Magadha (now known as Bihar) during the same time to offer a pragmatic view of people could achieve the egoless state of “Nirvana”. Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism was born into a family that lived in Kapilavastu, in the foothills of the Himalayas in Nepal. Prophecy had it that if young Siddhartha was to become a ruler, he had to isolate himself from the world and stay within the domains of his kingdom. If he ventured out at age, he would eventually transform into a universal spiritual leader. Despite having married and becoming a father, the philosophical quest for Gautama led him to explore the mysteries of human nature and life. He was overwhelmed and particularly attentive to old men, sick men and corpses in cremation grounds. Eventually, the sight of a holy man sitting by the river side had offered spiritual refuge from the thought of inevitable suffering. He spent six years wandering through Indian forests in search of wisdom, practices that could lead him to an enlightened state and eternal knowledge which could eradicate suffering.

與此同時(shí)，佛教從摩揭陀（今比哈爾邦）崛起，它給人民提供了一個(gè)實(shí)際的、可以修得無我狀態(tài)（涅槃）的愿景。佛教的創(chuàng)立者——喬達(dá)摩悉達(dá)多，出生于喜馬拉雅山腳下的迦毗羅衛(wèi)（今尼泊爾境內(nèi)）。有預(yù)言說如果年輕的悉達(dá)多想要成為一個(gè)統(tǒng)治者的話，他必須將自己與世界孤立起來，并且不可邁出他的王國一步。如果成年后走出了王國，喬達(dá)摩則會(huì)成為一個(gè)普世的精神領(lǐng)袖。雖然已經(jīng)結(jié)婚生子，但對哲學(xué)的訴求還是讓他選擇去探索人類本質(zhì)與生命的奧秘。他震驚于碰到的老人、病人和火葬場的尸體。最終，一個(gè)在河邊打坐的圣人讓喬達(dá)摩在思考無法避免的苦厄時(shí)得到了精神上的慰藉。他花了六年時(shí)間逡巡于印度的叢林之中，以求讓他能夠達(dá)到覺悟狀態(tài)的智慧和辦法，并獲得恒久的、可以消滅苦厄的知識(shí)。

Buddhism strangely was born of Gautama’s relentless determination to find enlightenment through continuously meditating for 49 days. Historically, Indians  regard the fig tree as being sacred due to Buddha (then Siddharth) assuming an enlightened status having sat under one. Many saints and sages in India meditate under fig trees in pursuit of enlightenment, following the footsteps of the Buddha. His realisations revolved around four main ideas through which he understood enlightenment or a “nirvana” which is a state in which all suffering ceases to exist. The ideas were formalised as the Four Noble Truths where (a) Everything in life is suffering and sorrow, (b) The cause of all suffering is people’s selfish desire for the temporary pleasures of this world, (c) The way to end all suffering is to end all desires and (d) The way to overcome such desires and attain enlightenment is to follow the Eightfold Path, which is called the Middle Way between desires and self-denial.

很有意思的是，佛教的誕生源自喬達(dá)摩堅(jiān)定不移追求覺悟時(shí)連續(xù)的49天冥想。歷史上，印度人認(rèn)為菩提樹是神圣的，因?yàn)榉鹜樱ㄏみ_(dá)多）是在一顆菩提樹下達(dá)到的覺悟。很多印度的圣人和智者都追尋佛陀的腳步，在菩提樹下冥想以求覺悟。佛陀的認(rèn)識(shí)圍繞著四個(gè)主要思想，通過它們理解覺悟或者“涅槃”——一種所有苦厄都不存在的狀態(tài)。這些想法形成了佛教的“四諦”：“苦諦”，生命到處都是苦痛；“集諦”，一切苦厄的根源在于人類為了追求現(xiàn)世暫時(shí)的愉悅而擁有的自私欲求；“滅諦”，消滅一切苦厄的方法是消滅一切欲求；“道諦”，克服欲求，達(dá)到覺悟的方法是追尋“八道”，即欲求和克己之間的中道。

印度比哈爾邦菩提伽耶摩訶菩提寺中喬達(dá)摩三十五歲等身像

The Buddha’s teachings included many ideas from the Hindu tradition. However, they also differed sharply from that of some. Reincarnation was a commonality between the two religions.He had accepted a cyclical, or repetitive, view of history, where the world is created and destroyed over and over again. However, the Buddha disapproved the privileges of the Brahmin priests, and thus he rejected the caste system. The final goals of both religions—moksha for Hindus and nirvana for Buddhist were similar where both involve a perfect state of understanding and a break from the chain of reincarnations.

佛陀的教導(dǎo)囊括了印度教傳統(tǒng)的諸多思想，但它們也有著相當(dāng)鮮明的不同。轉(zhuǎn)世概念兩種宗教皆有，佛陀認(rèn)可一種循環(huán)、乃至重復(fù)的歷史觀，其中世界反復(fù)被創(chuàng)建、摧毀，循環(huán)往復(fù)。佛陀不認(rèn)可的是婆羅門僧侶的特權(quán)，因而他否定了種姓制度。兩種宗教的最終目標(biāo)——印度教徒的Moksha和佛教徒的涅槃?lì)H為接近，都包括達(dá)到一種完美覺悟的狀態(tài)，從轉(zhuǎn)世的鏈條中解脫。

3、Buddhism declined in India

三、佛教在印度的衰落

The fate of Buddhism in India saw its gradual demise through its own principle of “Anicca”. “All is Flux” is the fundamental principle of Buddhism that alludes to the concept of impermanence. Irrespective of whether the dying away is metaphorical, symbolic or physical, Buddhism has maintained the importance of transforming the original state to that of something else.  It was this particular ideology that may have created problems in the staunch castes divided social fabric of ancient India. This is because Indian civilisation and the Brahmanical traditions in those days were fatalistic about an individual’s life path based on the caste they were born into. Buddhism rejected this notion and provided a universal pathway which did not discriminate one based on their inherent caste but discerned individuals on their rigorous morality and orientation to become disciplined.  

佛教在印度命運(yùn)多舛，它逐漸衰落是由自身“無常”的思想所致。“萬事皆空”是佛教的核心理念，它暗含無常的概念。無論消逝的是暗喻、象征、還是實(shí)物，佛教其最初的狀態(tài)發(fā)生了改變。可能正是由于這一思想，導(dǎo)致了佛教在被頑固種姓制度分割的古印度社會(huì)舉步維艱，當(dāng)年印度文明和婆羅門傳統(tǒng)都認(rèn)為一個(gè)人一生的道路是由他生來歸屬的種姓所注定的。佛教卻拒絕這一看法，提供了一條不因人的天生種姓而歧視，反而重視通過個(gè)人嚴(yán)格道德要求和取向自律的普世道路。

The social framework of ancient India that propagated the caste system was not conducive to the Buddhist egalitarian principles and what made it even more difficult was the exclusion of the complexities of social and psychological needs of people in search of enlightenment. A Hindu would have to give up all he or she had known about their lineage in order to be indoctrinated into this alternate religion. This meant they would have to reject the social construct of caste system which provided a sense of belonging to them and embark upon an individual journey to find the truth. It would have been difficult for Buddha to explain the actual insights that would encourage followers on his version of truth.

古代印度建立在種姓制度基礎(chǔ)之上的社會(huì)結(jié)構(gòu)并不有助于佛教眾生平等理念的傳播。更麻煩的是，佛教排除了追尋覺悟者復(fù)雜的社會(huì)和心理需求。一個(gè)印度教徒必須放棄他所知道的、關(guān)于自己家族種系的全部東西才可以加入佛教。這意味著他們必須拒絕社會(huì)種姓系統(tǒng)為他們提供的歸屬感，獨(dú)自踏上追尋真理的旅程。這讓佛陀很難向人們解釋洞見，以便更多的人選擇相信他的真理版本。

Another important and perhaps a more significant contribution to the decline of Buddhism in India was due to the emergence of the “Bhakti Movement” (Devotional Movement) after 1323 in Kashmir and Bengal (North and East India). As an antidote to the caste system in ancient India, a collective and transcendental version of Hinduism emerged from a part of the Vedas that was originally hidden. The “Advaita Vedanta” (not-two, singular in Sankrit) preached a form of enlightenment which was possible through knowledge of the self in all its components and attributes. The Advaita form of Hinduism did not discriminate against caste, ethnicity, religion or any form of social divide. Under its principles, both the Brahmin (highest caste) and the Sudras (lowest caste) were equal recipients of the eternal wisdom of Hinduism in its Advaita form that would grant “Moksha” or “Nirvana”.

另外一個(gè)讓佛教在印度衰落的重要原因是1323年后在北印度克什米爾和東印度孟加拉發(fā)生的Bhakti運(yùn)動(dòng)（虔誠派運(yùn)動(dòng)）。作為對古代印度種姓制度的矯正，一個(gè)更加集體而先驗(yàn)的印度教從部分隱匿的吠陀經(jīng)中誕生。“Advaita Vedanta”（不二，梵語為單數(shù)）傳播一種形式的覺悟。達(dá)到這種覺悟可能更依賴于通過了解自身所有的組成和特征。不二形式的印度教不以種姓、民族、宗教或其他社會(huì)分割而歧視。在這種思想下，婆羅門（最高種姓）和首陀羅（最低種姓）都可以接收到不二形式的印度教永恒智慧，從而獲得“Moksha”或涅槃。

What made matters more interesting was the political infusion of Indian nationalism with that Hindu Universalism during the British Raj. The colonisation of India by the British lead to the Hindu renaissance in the 19th century, which transformed the way the East and the West understood Hinduism. In order to fight off oppression, the idea of a unifying Vedic force which defined the essence of Hinduism was intensely propagated by Hindu reformers.  This not only cemented the concept of a unified religious sect that shared universal truths but also a nation that desired to transcend the predisposed attributes (such as the caste system) of Indians. The Hindu reformers founded the “Brahmo Samaj” (based on the Brahman- universal soul), and were supported by the Unitarian Church due to the perception of shared principles and ideologies.

更有意思的地方在于印度民族主義與印度教普遍主義在英國殖民時(shí)代的融合。英國人對印度的殖民導(dǎo)致了19世紀(jì)的印度教復(fù)興，改變了東方和西方對印度教的理解。為了反抗壓迫，印度教改革者強(qiáng)烈地主張通過一種具有統(tǒng)一性的吠陀力量來闡述印度教核心的思想。這不僅粘合了一個(gè)統(tǒng)一的，分享普遍性真理的宗教團(tuán)體的概念，也催生出了一個(gè)想要超越固有印度特質(zhì)（如種姓系統(tǒng)）的民族。這些印度教改革者創(chuàng)立了“Brahmo Samaj”（基于Brahman——萬物靈魂），并因共通的理念和思想觀感取得了一神會(huì)的支持。

Gradually, Vedanta was known to be the essence of Hinduism and Advaita Vedanta , the true  metaphysical philosophy of this multifaceted religion. As a result of the popularised notion of Adavaita Vedanta throughout India and the West, an opportunity was provided for the simultaneous construction of a nationalist ideology which would free India from the clutches of colonial oppression of the British to the theological threats of alternate pathways of Buddhism.

漸漸地，吠檀多（終極吠陀）成為印度教和不二的精髓，這門多層面宗教真正的形而上學(xué)哲學(xué)。因?yàn)榱餍兴枷氩欢撛谟《群臀鞣絺鞑サ木壒剩《冉逃辛艘粋€(gè)機(jī)會(huì)：在構(gòu)建民族意識(shí)形態(tài)的同時(shí)，使得印度可以擺脫英國殖民的壓迫與桎梏，并掃清佛教在神學(xué)上的潛在威脅。

印度教圣地，恒河河畔的瓦拉納西

版權(quán)聲明

大象公會(huì)所有文章均為原創(chuàng)，

版權(quán)歸大象公會(huì)所有。如希望轉(zhuǎn)載，

請事前聯(lián)系我們：

bd@idaxiang.org